A sustainable future for water and sanitation?

Water and sanitation are a foundation for economic development and well-being. They allow the improvement of human capital by lowering the incidence of preventable diseases (e.g. cholera), infant mortality, and rates of absenteeism from school and work, thus reducing poverty. As governments across the world pursue ‘sustainability’, what could this actually mean in the area of water and sanitation?

ADDRESSING SCALE

A myriad of organisations and networks – from the World Bank to national governments to NGOs such as Water Aid – are working at all scales through countless approaches to improve conditions. Large scale projects, such as the implementation of ‘conventional’ sewerage and water systems (in)famously encouraged by the World Bank and IMF, are not the solution for every place. In fact, these may be considered as anti-poor due to the high costs that are ‘simply not an option’ for the poorest communities (e.g. the case of privatisation in Mali that I covered in the last post) (Paterson et al. 2007: 902).

Small-scale, low-cost programmes are often more effective in facilitating access to clean water and appropriate sanitation facilities. For example, in areas of high population density and poor drainage, on-site sanitation facilities such as pit latrines are not suitable to sustainably serve the population. Here, simplified sewerage (that alters conventional plans of pipe diameter, depth and gradient yet keeps a sound design) may be used. This is much more financially feasible; simplified sewerage construction costs US$52-112 per household in developing countries compared to up to US$160 for conventional sewerage in the period 1990-2000 (Paterson et al. 2007: 903). In Kumasi, Ghana, the authorities implemented simplified sewerage in the Asafo tenement area, providing coverage for nearly 20,000 people. With such a high population in the small area, it was estimated that this method was cheaper than on-site sanitation, and since it was commissioned in 1994, the sewerage has not experienced major breakdowns. Much of its success is attributed to ‘low costs…very high inputs of local resources from design, construction supervision and implementation of works’ (Salifu 2013: 15). Local and participatory projects are more likely to understand a specific site, group of people, their wants, needs and capacities, leading to improvements in the uptake of initiatives (see post on marketing for sanitation).

INCLUSIVITY

Only by being inclusive will progress be sustainable. Sustainability is determined by whether facilities are maintained to continue to function and be used (Carter et al. 1999). As can be seen from the privatisation of water provision in Mali (and other cases e.g. Kumbo, Cameroon), marginalisation can result in conflicts and complications in improving well-being. One large part of the population is often neglected in water and sanitation management: women.

Women and girls are affected disproportionately by water and sanitation issues. As the main water collectors, especially in rural areas, they spend many hours each day fetching water, firewood and food. Households in rural Uganda were found to spend 2 hours a day collecting water, and in sub-Saharan Africa overall it is estimated that roughly 40 billion (mostly women’s) hours each year are spent collecting water (Ray 2007: 428). Other than what this huge burden means for school attendance and education, and therefore prospects, women may also be subject to violence or sexual assault when carrying out such activities. A straightforward task like ‘collecting water or going to the toilet can put them at risk of rape or abuse’ (UNHCR 2016). This is particularly seen to be the case in refugee camps:

‘When collecting water and firewood women risk sexual violence either from other refugees, or from hostile host communities, while shortages of food can put women under pressure to offer sex so that they and their families can eat. Many refugee women have been separated from the father or partner who would normally protect them, while the change in gender roles brought about by the displacement situation can lead to high levels of domestic violence’ – Refugee Council 2009 pp.5

Nonetheless, women are increasingly recognised as essential participants for sustainable development. Better female education and health is associated with health-seeking behaviour, higher immunisation rates, and positive nutritional and educational outcomes for their children (World Bank 2012: 5). In the M’bera refugee camp in Mauritania, which hosts over 75,000 Malian refugees, UNICEF and other organisations use workshops to teach mothers of children recovering from malnutrition or diarrheal diseases how to recognise symptoms of children getting sick again (UNICEF 2013). Naturally educators and role models in the household, and working in a similar way to programmes like School Led Total Sanitation (mentioned in previous posts), women can play a key role in bettering water and sanitation conditions in the long term; they can teach and inculcate valuable lessons on hygienic practices and the importance of sanitation to their children.

Figure 1: Sustainability Chain. Source: Carter et al. 1999

Carter et al. (1999) illustrate sustainability as consisting of four basic elements: motivation, maintenance, cost recovery and continuing support (see Figure 1). A part of this chain that I think is immensely important and often overlooked is the first – motivation. Without the motivation of a community to use a facility, particularly if they now have to pay for it, any project will fail. Often, health education and time are needed for people to realise the benefits of improved water supplies or sanitation facilities; the immediately noticeable effects are usually simply aesthetics, smell or practicality (e.g. proximity to a water source) (1999: 294). As I have argued in several of my blog posts, both the alteration of, and adaptation to, perceptions of water and sanitation issues are critical to make initiatives effective in the long term, allowing sustainable development.